From Pigeons to Raptors: Avifauna Across the Early Upper Paleolithic Sequence of Manot Cave, Israel

Avian exploitation during the Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) is frequently interpreted as a marker of socioeconomic intensification across Europe and the Levant. However, the specific character of avian exploitation in the Levant has remained unexplored due to the scarcity of detailed zooarchaeological analyses. This study addresses this gap by analyzing bird remains from the well-stratified sequence at Manot Cave, Israel. The analysis focuses on three cultural phases: Phase 3 (~40–36.5 kyr cal BP), Phase 2 (Levantine Aurignacian, 37.5–36.0 kyr cal BP), and Phase 1 (Atlitian, 34.5–33.1 kyr cal BP). Butchery evidence across all phases confirms that humans exploited birds, although some remains reflect contributions from nonhuman predators as well. Humans primarily targeted rock pigeons (Columba livia/oenas), which were possibly cave-dwelling, predictable, and accessible. During the Levantine Aurignacian phase, fowling occasionally extended to game birds, waterbirds, and raptors. Notably, cutmarks on the remains of long-legged buzzards (Buteo rufinus) and a short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus) suggest raptors were deliberately targeted, possibly for non-dietary purposes. The presence of nonresident bird species in the Aurignacian layers demonstrates that avian exploitation could have occurred year-round. Overall, the results indicate a more selective pattern of avian use in the Levantine EUP than previously recognized. At Manot, it centered on a reliable and easily accessible resource, rock pigeons, which may be considered as high-ranked small game. These findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the role that avian resources played in EUP subsistence strategies in the Levant.