Ethical, societal issues, and future challenges of plant CRISPR technologies

The gene editing tools, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein (CRISPR/Cas,) have brought about a revolutionary shift in the field of plant breeding and molecular biology. In prokaryotes, it is a component of the adaptive immune system for providing defense against viruses. It has been modified to act in plants, thus representing an excellent, programmable endonuclease enzyme with target specificity, simplicity of use, and cost-effectiveness, allowing for precise genetic modification of crop species, which opens the door for the development of improved germplasm. Its rapid development has led to widespread applications in research, biomedicine, and agriculture, but also poses new regulatory challenges worldwide due to ethical, safety, and technical concerns. Moreover, genome editing (GE) with engineered nucleases is increasingly utilized in agricultural crop development for gene discovery and trait enhancement. While traditional concerns about GM foods have been extensively debated, CRISPR-Cas9 technology introduces new ethical and regulatory dilemmas related to its impact on health, the environment, and society. This technology is at the forefront of GE, with growing use in academic research for gene function studies and in creating improved crop varieties. The global debate continues on the policies and regulations surrounding CRISPR-edited crops.