Are We Frightened Because We Run Away? Some Evidence from Metacognitive Feelings

William James asked whether we run away because we are frightened or we are frightened because we run away. This issue is addressed here with regard to the relationship between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. While discussions of metacognition generally assume that feelings of knowing drive controlled action, other discussions imply that such feelings are based on feedback from controlled action, and thus follow rather than precede behavior. Recent evidence is reported suggesting that when the investment of effort is goal driven, greater effort enhances metacognitive feelings, consistent with the "feelingsaffect- behavior" hypothesis. When effort is data driven, however, metacognitive feelings decrease with increasing effort, suggesting that such feelings are based on feedback from behavior. Both types of causal effects can occur simultaneously.