A thousand years of Nubian supply of sub-Saharan ivory to the Southern Levant, ca. 1600–600 BCE

Finely crafted ivory objects were highly valued prestige commodities in the Levant and more generally throughout the ancient Near East, wielded as symbols of authority, rulership, and participation in trans-regional trade networks. Our research aims to trace the networks and agents involved in the trade of ivory to the Southern Levant over a period of a thousand years (1600 BCE–600 BCE) by identifying its biological and geographical sources. This timespan encompassed major shifts in the geopolitical landscape of this region, from Late Bronze Age Canaanite city-states under Egyptian hegemony to autochthonous Iron Age territorial polities. Proteomic analyses reveal that ivories were harvested mostly from African elephants, while multi-stable isotope analyses indicate that these animals generally inhabited woodland mosaic habitats, probably located in the upper White Nile tributary. Elephant ivories were probably acquired by Nubian traders via small-scale exchange with local hunters who harvested elephants from diverse ecological niches within that broader ecoregion. The persistence of ivory sourced from this region despite the political disintegration of Dynastic Egypt, the widely recognized mediator of ivory exchange networks, suggests that Nubians actively asserted their monopoly over the procurement and distribution of lucrative ivory independent of Egyptian control and prestige economies.